Curated Guides > Syllabus > Prehistory to the Middle Ages: the Mediterranean Syllabus
Prehistory to the Middle Ages: the Mediterranean Syllabus
This syllabus begins by exploring prehistoric art across the globe before narrowing to focus on the Mediterranean region, where various European, West Asian, and North African cultures rose, fell, commingled, and transformed one another. Christianity emerges as the majority religion, though Judaism and Islam are a vital part of the history of this region.
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Collapse AllStudying art’s history helps us develop empathy for people in the past, and for cultures different from our own. This unit offers both a critical look at the discipline of art history and offers “brief histories” that provide a foundation for the course material.
Viewers in front of Emanuel Leutze, Washington Crossing the Delaware, 1851, oil on canvas, 378.5 x 647.7 cm (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
- Why art history? Developing empathy
- Ever wondered…why study art of the past?
- Ever wondered… why people become art historians?
- Why you don’t like art history
- What is art history and where is it going?
- Brief histories
- Common questions about dates
- A brief history of Western culture
- The five major world religions
- A brief history of religion in art
- A brief history of the representation of the body in Western painting
- A brief history of the representation of the body in Western sculpture
- Who was left out of art's history (until recently)
- Why are there so few female artists?
- Wendy Red Star, 1880 Crow Peace Delegation
- An interview with Fred Wilson about the conventions of museums and race
- What are the five major world religions, and do they differ in their approach to religious images?
- What are some of the reasons women are under-represented in museums and galleries today?
- How has art history changed?
- What are some of the definitions of art offered in this unit?
- Ancient (c. 3000 B.C.E. to c. 400 C.E.)
- Middle Ages / Medieval (c. 400 C.E. to c. 1400 C.E.)
- Renaissance (c. 1400 to 1600)
- Early Modern (c. 1600–1800)
- Modern (after c. 1800)
- Hinduism
- Judaism
- Buddhism
- Christianity
- Islam
- foreshortening
- contrapposto
Key Questions
Key Terms
This unit provides an overview of prehistoric art (art made before there was a written record), and considers the question, “what is art?” When we think about prehistoric art we may think first of the cave paintings in France and Spain, but some prehistoric art is even older and has been found around the world.
Ivory figure with lion head and partly human body standing upright, Stadel Cave, Baden-Württemberg, Germany, 40,000 years old (Museum Ulm)
- Paleolithic
- Lion Man
- Venus of Willendorf
- Hall of Bulls, Lascaux
- Bhimbetka cave paintings
- Warty pig cave painting in Sulawesi, Indonesia
- Apollo 11 Cave Stones
- Carvings and paintings, Kakadu
- Neolithic
- The Neolithic revolution
- Bannerstones, an introduction
- Stonehenge
- The Jericho Skull
- Jade Cong
- Running Horned Woman, Tassili n’Ajjer, Algeria
- Bushel with ibex motifs
- What are the limitations of our knowledge about prehistoric art?
- What evidence is offered for religious beliefs in the prehistoric period?
- What developments define the Neolithic era?
- What definition of “art” begins to emerge when we study prehistoric art?
- Prehistoric
- therianthrope
- Stone Age
- Paleolithic
- Neolithic
- Pleistoscene
- anthropomorphic
- NAGPRA
- bi and cong
- lintel
- bannerstone
Key Questions
Key Terms
Often referred to as the “cradle of civilization,” Mesopotamia was home to several distinct cultures that rose and fell over several millennia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Perhaps the best known of them are the Sumerian, Babylonian, and Assyrian cultures, all of which used the world’s oldest form of writing: cuneiform.
Map showing the extent of Mesopotamia (map: Goran tek-en, CC BY-SA 4.0)
- Introduction
- Ancient West Asia: Cradle of civilization
- Cuneiform, an introduction
- Cuneiform Tablets
- Sumerian
- White Temple and ziggurat, Uruk
- Warka Vase
- Standing Male Worshipper (Tell Asmar)
- Cylinder seals
- Standard of Ur and other objects from the Royal Graves
- Babylonian
- Visiting Babylon
- Law Code Stele of King Hammurabi
- Assyrian
- Assyria, an introduction
- Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II
- Ashurbanipal Hunting Lions
- What are some characteristics of Sumerian art and culture?
- Why is Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) sometimes called “the cradle of civilization”?
- What kinds of documents have survived written in cuneiform?
- How did the ancient Assyrians use art to promote the power of the king?
- cuneiform
- ziggurat
- Sumerian
- Inanna
- Assyrian
- Babylonian
- cylinder seal
- agricultural theocracy
- lamassu
- 1991 Gulf War
- polytheistic
Key Questions
Key Terms
The majority of ancient Egyptian art was made to honor their gods and their rulers. A belief that images had an impact in the world itself was critical to ensuring an afterlife—the function of so much ancient Egyptian imagery.
Ancient Egypt map (underlying map © Google)
- Introduction
- Ancient Egyptian art
- Mummification and funeral rites
- Predynastic and Old Kingdom
- Palette of King Narmer
- The Great Pyramids of Giza
- King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and queen
- The Seated Scribe
- Middle Kingdom
- Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period, an introduction
- Statue of an Offering Bearer, Tomb of Meketre
- New Kingdom
- House Altar depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Three of their Daughters
- Hunefer’s Judgement in the presence of Osiris
- Mortuary Temple and Large Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut
- Roman Egypt
- Mummy of Herakleides
- Nubia and the Kingdom of Kush
- Pylon of the Nubian Lion Temple at Naga
- How were ancient Egyptian representations of the human form different in different media (sculpture versus painting) or for different classes of people?
- What was the predominant role of art for the ancient Egyptians?
- How did the ancient Egyptians express the divine nature of their rulers in their art?
- How did representations of human figures change during Akhenaten’s rule?
- Nile River
- Predynastic
- Old Kingdom
- Middle Kingdom
- New Kingdom
- Kush/Kushite
- Hypostyle hall
- Nubia/Nubian
- Pharaoh/pharaonic
- registers
- hierarchy of scale
- hieroglyphs
- mummy portrait
- smiting motif
- sunken relief
Key Questions
Key Terms
Across the Mediterranean Sea from Egypt, the Cycladic, Minoan, and Mycenaean cultures thrived and interacted in the area of modern-day Greece.
Map of Ancient Aegean cultures (underlying map © Google)
- Introduction
- An introduction to the ancient Aegean
- Cycladic
- Cycladic art, an introduction
- Male Harp Player of the Early Spedos Type
- Early Cycladic figurines
- Minoan
- Minoan art, an introduction
- Knossos
- Bull-leaping fresco from the palace of Knossos
- Snake Goddess
- Octopus vase
- Statuette of a Male Figure (The Palaikastro Kouros)
- Mycenaean
- Mycenaean art, an introduction
- The Treasury of Atreus
- Lion Gate
- Warrior Krater
- How has the looting of Cycladic figurines affected our understanding of them?
- What are some of the major differences between Minoan and Mycenaean palaces, and what do those differences tell us about the differing priorities of these two civilizations?
- What kinds of people are represented in Minoan sculptures? What are their distinguishing stylistic traits?
- What do the differences between Minoan and Mycenaean vases suggest about their users’ interests?
- Crete
- Minoan
- Cycladic
- Mycenaean
- Sir Arthur Evans
- fresco
- ceramic
- krater
- Pictorial style
- kouros
- tholos
Key Questions
Key Terms
The art and architecture of ancient Greece are still celebrated (and emulated) in the modern world. This unit examines how ancient Greek artists and architects embraced different styles over time, changing their work to better suit the needs of the people who engaged with it.
The Ancient Greek World map (underlying map © Google)
- Introduction
- Introduction to ancient Greek art
- Introduction to ancient Greek architecture
- Greek Vase-Painting, an introduction
- Geometric
- Dipylon Amphora
- Protoarchaic
- Nikandre
- Archaic
- Kouroi and Korai, an introduction
- The François Vase: story book of Greek mythology
- Euphronios, Sarpedon Krater
- Early Classical and Classical
- Kritios Boy
- Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer)
- The Parthenon, Athens
- Hellenistic
- Statue of a Victorious Youth
- Nike (Winged Victory) of Samothrace
- What different functions did ancient Greek vases serve? How did their decoration change across time, and what stories did they tell?
- How did the ideal male human form evolve in Greek sculpture over time? What about the ideal female human form?
- What architectural orders were developed by the ancient Greeks? Where did they use them, and why were these buildings so important to them?
- contrapposto
- kore (korai plural)
- kouros (kouroi plural)
- Archaic
- Classical
- Hellenistic
- Classical orders (doric, ionic, Corinthian)
- black figure
- red figure
- Acropolis
- Athens
- Pericles
- sanctuary
- votive offering
- polytheistic
Key Questions
Key Terms
Building on Etruscan civilization, the vast and diverse Roman Republic and Empire almost defies belief. For more than a millennium it was the touchstone against which all of the European ideals of politics, art, and culture were judged.
Schematic map showing the territorial expansion of Rome from the Middle Republic to the death of the Emperor Trajan (map: Varana, CC BY-SA 3.0)
- Etruscan
- The Etruscans, an introduction
- Tomb of the Triclinium
- Ancient Rome
- Introduction
- Ancient Rome
- The Roman Forum: Part 1, Ruins in modern imagination
- Roman Republic
- Head of a Roman Patrician
- Temple of Portunus, Rome
- Roman Empire
- Pompeii: House of the Vettii
- Augustus of Primaporta
- Ara Pacis Augustae
- Column of Trajan
- The Arch of Titus
- The Pantheon (Rome)
- Temple of Bel, Palmyra
- Arch of Constantine, Rome
- What can we learn about the Etruscans from their tombs?
- How did the style of verism support the ambitions of politicians in the late Roman Republic?
- What are some of the achievements of ancient Roman architecture? What new materials did they employ?
- How did Augustus communicate his vision for the Roman Empire through art?
- How did the Roman Empire and its art transform in the 3rd and 4th centuries?
- tetrarchy
- Augustus
- contrapposto
- Roman Forum
- verism
- aqueduct
- Pax Romana
- concrete
- oculus
- basilica
- triumphal arch
- Pompeii
- peristyle
- domus
Key Questions
Key Terms
This period—the few centuries after Constantine made it legal for Christians to practice their religion—is one of transition, as Christians began to create a visual language for their new religion and also to codify its central doctrines. The art of this period reveals how both Jews and Christians drew on the ancient Roman visual tradition.
The Good Shepherd, The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, 425 C.E., mosaic, Ravenna, Italy (photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
- Introduction
- Christianity, an introduction
- Early Christianity, an introduction
- Judaism, an introduction
- Constantine
- Basilica of Constantine (Aula Palatina), Trier
- Portraits of the Four Tetrarchs
- The earliest Christian art and architecture
- The Symmachi Panel
- Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus
- Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome
- The Good Shepherd in Early Christianity
- Santa Maria Antiqua
- The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia
- Basilica of Santa Sabina, Rome
- Jewish art and architecture
- Mosaic decoration at the Hammath Tiberias synagogue
- How was Europe transformed in the 4th century and how do we see those transformations in art and architecture?
- How was ancient Roman architecture adopted for the new religion of Christianity?
- How do we see the co-mingling of polytheistic, Jewish, and Christian art during this period?
- Edict of Milan
- Constantine
- basilica
- sarcophagus
- eucharist
- gospels
- mosaic
- tesserae
- diaspora
- catacomb
- Second Commandment
- Good Shepherd
- Judea
- loculi
- tufa
Key Questions
Key Terms
The Roman emperor Constantine established a new capital for the Roman Empire in 330 C.E. —and named it for himself (Constantinople, today Istanbul in modern Turkey). The city was filled with beautiful churches, holy icons, glittering mosaics, and sacred relics; while the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) empire shrank over centuries, it retained a tie to the city of Venice.
The Byzantine Empire, approximate boundaries, mid-6th century (underlying map © Google)
- Introduction
- About the chronological periods of the Byzantine Empire
- Icons, an introduction
- Byzantine Iconoclasm and the Triumph of Orthodoxy
- Wearable art in Byzantium
- Justinian and the beginnings of Eastern Roman (Byzantine) art
- Hagia Sophia, Istanbul
- Theotokos mosaic, Hagia Sophia, Istanbul
- San Vitale and the Justinian and Theodora Mosaics
- Icon with Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George
- Art and architecture of Saint Catherine’s Monastery at Mount Sinai
- Venice
- Saint Mark’s Basilica, Venice
- Basilica of Santa Maria Assunta, Torcello
- Byzantine Art and the Fourth Crusade
- Icon of the Archangel Michael
- Why were images so controversial during periods of the Byzantine Empire? What were the arguments in favor of, and against, the use of religious images?
- How do the architecture and mosaics of churches like Hagia Sophia and San Vitale express both the power of the church for salvation and the temporal power of the emperor?
- How did Venice see itself (and its relationship to Constantinople), and how was this expressed in art and architecture?
- icon
- iconoclasm
- iconophile
- Justinian
- spolia
- relic
- Eastern Orthodox Church
- Latin Church
- Mount Sinai
- centrally planned church
- Pantokrator
- Fourth Crusade
- Theotokos
Key Questions
Key Terms
The western part of the Roman Empire fragmented, but also saw periods of stability and partial unification (under the Carolingian and then Ottonian rulers). Christianity spread across Europe, and as Jews increasingly moved into western Europe, the church was forced to reconcile their embrace of the Old Testament (the Jewish Bible) with the actual Jews living in their midst.
Sutton Hoo ship-burial helmet, iron, copper alloy, gold, tin, garnet, and silver, c. 600–650 C.E., 31.8 x 21.5 x 25.5 cm (The British Museum, London)
- England and Ireland
- Sutton Hoo Ship Burial
- The Lindisfarne Gospels
- Muiredach Cross
- Skellig Michael
- Scandinavian kingdoms
- Art of the Viking Age
- Carolingian Empire
- Charlemagne (part 1 of 2): An introduction
- Charlemagne (part 2 of 2): The Carolingian revival
- Palatine Chapel, Aachen
- Depicting Judaism in a medieval Christian ivory
- Ottonian Empire
- Cross of Lothair II
- Gospel Book of Otto III
- Bronze doors, Saint Michael’s, Hildesheim (Germany)
- Spain
- The Morgan Beatus
- What were some of the important reforms of the Carolingian period?
- How were the forms and material culture of ancient Greek and Roman (classical) art reused and transformed during this period?
- What do Ecclesia and Synagoga symbolize, and how were Jews understood in Europe during this period?
- Charlemagne
- Carolingian
- Ottonian
- Gospel
- Lindisfarne
- carpet page
- monasticism
- viking
- interlacing
- Norse
- spolia
- Aachen
- Synagoga and Ecclesia
- Hiberno-Saxon
Key Questions
Key Terms
The 7th century saw the emergence of Islam on the Arabian Peninsula and its rapid expansion into much of what had been the Roman Empire, including North Africa, West Asia, and Europe (the countries of Spain and Portugal today). This unit will also look at synagogue architecture in predominantly Muslim regions.
Courtyard of the Great Mosque of Damascus (photo: Eric Shin, CC BY-NC 2.0)
- Introduction
- Introduction to Islam
- About chronological periods in the Islamic world
- Introduction to mosque architecture
- Writing a history of Jewish architecture
- Islamic art and architecture
- The vibrant visual cultures of the Islamic West, an introduction
- The Umayyads, an introduction
- The Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhra)
- The Great Mosque of Damascus
- Mosaics in the early Islamic world
- Bifolium from the Pink Qur’an
- Folio from a Shahnama, The Bier of Iskandar (Alexander the Great)
- Jewish architecture
- The Ben Ezra Synagogue, Fustat, Egypt
- Medieval synagogues in Toledo, Spain
- What are the architectural features that appear in mosques all over the world?
- What are some of the visual features of Qur’ans made during this period?
- Who were the Umayyads? Why are they important in the history of art?
- How did Muslim, Jewish, and Christian visual traditions inform each other during this period?
- mosque
- Prophet Muhammed
- Mecca
- Qur'an
- Umayyad Dynasty
- Fatimid
- sahn
- mihrab
- minaret
- caliphate
- qibla wall
- Torah
- synagogue
- bimah (bema)
Key Questions
Key Terms
Europe sees a flourishing of architecture (decorated with painting and sculpture) not seen since ancient Roman times. Christians made pilgrimages to visit relics—big business, but pilgrimage is an important part of Judaism, Islam, and other religions as well, and if you went on a pilgrimage you’d want a souvenir to take back with you.
Master of Taüll, apse painting, Sant Clement in Taüll, c. 1123 (Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, Barcelona)
- Introduction
- A beginner’s guide to Romanesque art
- Pilgrimage routes and the cult of the relic
- Pilgrimage souvenirs
- Romanesque architecture
- Last Judgment, Tympanum, Cathedral of St. Lazare, Autun (France)
- Church and Reliquary of Sainte-Foy, France
- Pentecost and Mission to the Apostles Tympanum, Basilica Ste-Madeleine, Vézelay (France)
- Durham Cathedral
- Peterborough Cathedral
- Cormac’s Chapel
- Romanesque art
- Virgin and Child in Majesty
- The Melisende Psalter
- The Bayeux Tapestry
- How did Romanesque church architecture accommodate the large number of Christian pilgrims?
- What are the characteristics of Romanesque architecture?
- Why did people go on religious pilgrimages, and what role did relics play?
- What are the characteristics of Romanesque sculpture?
- Crusades
- relic/reliquary
- pilgrimage
- purgatory
- Santiago de Compostela
- hajj
- Jerusalem
- Mecca
- Kaaba
- tympanum
- Last Judgment
- Romanesque
- psalter
- Way of Saint James
- chevron
Key Questions
Key Terms
During the Gothic period, flying buttresses allowed churches to be filled with light from stained glass windows. In sculpture and painting, divine figures began to appear more human.
Beverley Minster, East Riding of Yorkshire, England, begun after 1188, largely complete by 1400
- Introduction
- Gothic architecture explained
- Architecture
- Amiens Cathedral
- Sainte-Chapelle, Paris
- Salisbury Cathedral
- Sculpture and metalwork
- Humanizing Mary: the Virgin of Jeanne d’Evreux
- The Holy Thorn Reliquary of Jean, duc de Berry
- Manuscripts
- The Golden Haggadah
- Dedication Page (colophon), with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France, Saint Louis Bible (Moralized Bible or Bible moralisée)
- Painting
- The Crucifixion, c. 1200 (from Christus triumphans to Christus patiens)
- Inventing the image of Saint Francis
- Cimabue, Virgin and Child Enthroned, and Prophets (Santa Trinita Maestà)
- Duccio, Heaven on earth— The Rucellai Madonna
- Giotto, Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel (part 1 of 4)
- What are the characteristics of Gothic architecture?
- How did the representation of biblical figures change during this period?
- What are some of the reasons works of art were commissioned during this period?
- portal
- Haggadah
- Christus triumphans
- nave
- gallery
- clerestory
- naturalism
- Trinity
- relic/reliquary
- mendicant
- flying buttress
- illuminated manuscript
- intercessor
- fresco
