Cover, Tomb of the Diver, c. 470 B.C.E., true fresco on travertine, 111 x 210 cm (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Paestum; photo: PaestumPaestum, CC BY-SA 4.0)
A rare find
Although ancient Greek authors often describe impressive paintings they saw on wood panels or building walls, very few survive today because they were especially fragile. In 1968, an important discovery revealed a rare example of ancient painting.
Map of the Mediterranean with Poseidonia, Sybaris, and Athens (underlying map © Google)
The artifact was not found in Greece, but in southern Italy, outside the walls of an ancient Greek colony named Poseidonia. There, archaeologists found a tomb made of five stone slabs—four for the walls and one for the ceiling—dug into the ground in a small cemetery. [1] The tomb is just over six feet long, leaving enough room for the body of the deceased and a few grave goods. Although the skeleton inside was largely disintegrated, the rich decorations of the tomb are well preserved. The four walls of the tomb are painted with a scene of a drinking party, while its ceiling shows a young man diving into water. The ceiling gives the tomb its modern name, the Tomb of the Diver.
Tomb of the Diver reconstruction (based on photographs by Velvet, CC BY-SA 3.0)
The Tomb of the Diver is significant because of its paintings, which are often celebrated as rare examples of an ancient Greek art form that is mostly missing today. But describing the tomb as Greek is an oversimplification. Its creator included some elements that are typical of Greek art in the paintings, but he borrowed other components from the Etruscans, whose civilization thrived in northern and central Italy. The painter may have even included a few characteristics of non-Etruscan, local south Italian culture in the tomb’s decoration. The Tomb of the Diver provides evidence of cross-cultural interactions that were happening between people living in Greece and Italy around 470 B.C.E., when it was made. In the following paragraphs, we will consider how the tomb was made, what its paintings show, and what they mean. We will consider whether the Tomb of the Diver should be classified as Greek, Etruscan, or something else, challenging these categories’ boundaries.
Tomb of the Diver, c. 470 B.C.E., true fresco on travertine (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Paestum; photo: Velvet and Firedrop, CC BY-SA 3.0)
Making the Tomb of the Diver
We don’t know who painted the Tomb of the Diver. In fact, scholars don’t even agree on whether one craftsperson painted the tomb alone or two (or more) artisans collaborated on it together, though most believe at least two artists were involved. [2] Despite their anonymity, we can tell that the craftspeople who made the Tomb of the Diver were meticulous artisans because of the techniques they used. First, they covered each of the five stone slabs in a single layer of plaster. They then sketched the scene they planned to paint into the plaster using a thin stylus. Once the sketch was complete, while the plaster was still wet, the artisans colored the figures in with paint. [3] The technique of painting on wet plaster is known as true fresco. True frescos are often better preserved than other paintings because many kinds of paint bind especially well to wet plaster.
Symposiast on north wall (detail), Tomb of the Diver, c. 470 B.C.E., true fresco on travertine, 78 x 96 cm (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Paestum; photo: Miguel Hermoso Cuesta, CC BY-SA 4.0)
The artisan who decorated the Tomb of the Diver used only a few colors of paint, favoring black and red and adding some details in green, blue, and white. After he colored the figures in, he added black outlines around them and used thin lines of black paint to incorporate additional details like muscles. [4] We can see this in his depiction of one man on the north wall of the tomb. Much of the figure is outlined in black, and his abdomen, chest, and arm muscles are added in thin black lines. The colors are mostly reds, browns, and whites, with a stripe of bright blue representing a cushion on a couch. The artisan painted his figures in profile, with some overlapping slightly to give a sense of depth. By using these techniques, the artisan ensured that the scenes inside the tomb were durable and easily understandable to any ancient viewer who encountered them.
The drinking party on the side walls
All four side walls of the Tomb of the Diver show a drinking party. In ancient Greece, this kind of party was called a symposion. Symposia were attended by wealthy men who talked and listened to music as they reclined on couches and enjoyed wine. We find five symposiasts on each of the long walls of the tomb. They all wear cloaks wrapped around their waists and wreaths on their heads. Small tables are set in front of their couches.
North wall, Tomb of the Diver, c. 470 B.C.E., true fresco on travertine, 79 x 193 cm (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Paestum; photo: Ingo Mehling, CC BY-SA 4.0)
On the north wall, a man reclining alone holds out his cup with his right hand, as if asking for a refill or greeting the figures approaching on the short west wall. Two men recline together on the middle couch, the one on the left swinging his wine cup on his finger, preparing to throw the last of his wine at a target as part of a popular ancient drinking game. [5] The two men reclining together on the right are embracing, seemingly unaware of the activity around them. The man at the left is younger (as indicated by his lack of facial hair) and holds a stringed musical instrument. [6] The bearded older man at the right holds the back of the younger man’s head and stares into his eyes. The artist has used thin black lines to outline the men’s bodies, showing them twisting towards one another, enlivening their interaction. Such intimate moments were typical of Greek symposia, during which older and younger men often had romantic relationships with one another as pederastic couples.
South wall, Tomb of the Diver, c. 470 B.C.E., true fresco on travertine, 79 x 193 cm (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Paestum; photo: Carole Raddato, CC BY-SA 2.0)
The south wall shows a similar scene. The man at left here holds a stringed instrument in his right hand and an egg in his left hand. This egg is an unusual element not often found in Greek symposia scenes. However, in some Etruscan grave monuments, individuals hold eggs as symbols of rebirth. [7] The couple in the center of the south wall hold their wine cups and look towards one another calmly. On the couch at the right, a younger man plays music with a pair of pipes while his older lover throws his head back and enjoys the song.
East wall, Tomb of the Diver, c. 470 B.C.E., true fresco on travertine, 78 x 96 cm (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Paestum; photo: Ingo Mehling, CC BY-SA 4.0)
Each of the short walls of the tomb show different moments from the symposion. On the east wall, a nude boy holds a small jug in his outstretched right hand. He is a servant tasked with providing wine to the symposiasts. Behind him is a large vessel decorated with a wreath sitting atop a red table. This vase held the wine for the symposion. While many scholars have suggested this vase is a type of Greek vessel known as a volute krater, E. G. D. Robinson has recently pointed out that it more closely resembles a type of ancient Italian vase that was made in the area just south of Poseidonia, near where the Tomb of the Diver was found. [8] Here too we find another non-Greek element in a “Greek” symposion.
West wall, Tomb of the Diver, c. 470 B.C.E., true fresco on travertine, 78 x 98 cm (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Paestum; photo: Prof. Mortel, CC BY 2.0)
On the west wall we find three figures walking towards the reclining symposiasts. At the far left is a man in a dotted cloak holding a staff. In front of him is a nude young man who has a bright blue scarf draped over his arms. He extends his left hand in front of him, as if greeting the men he approaches. [9] In front of him is a smaller figure playing the double pipes, providing musical accompaniment to the small procession. This figure wears a long dress and has lighter skin than the others, indicating she is female.
The Peleus Painter, Athenian red-figure stamnos, c. 450–440 B.C.E., terracotta, 39.37 cm (© The Trustees of the British Museum, London)
This symposion scene may at first seem entirely Greek. It seems to show a particularly Greek event, and it is stylistically similar to representations of symposia on ancient Greek vases. [10] For example, if we compare the symposion scene in the Tomb of the Diver to a symposion scene on an Athenian vase, we find many similarities. Both show symposiasts in profile, reclining on couches with striped cushions, tables set in front of them. They hold drinking cups in their hands, wear wreaths on their heads, and have cloaks draped over their waists. On the vase, the symposiast on the left turns back to look towards his companion, the symposiast in the middle throws his head back as he enjoys the pipe player’s music, and the symposiast at right swings his cup to play a drinking game. These same postures are repeated on the walls of the Tomb of the Diver. Many Athenian vases like this one were imported into Italy and would have been accessible to whoever painted the Tomb of the Diver.
Back wall, Tomb of the Leopards, Monterozzi Necropolis, Tarquinia, Italy, c. 470–450 B.C.E., fresco (photo: public domain)
But there are Etruscan and Italian elements in these scenes as well. The egg held by the man on the south wall is a symbol of rebirth in Etruscan art, and the vase on the table on the east wall may be Italian. Moreover, the very fact that the interior of the Tomb of the Diver is decorated relates it more closely to Etruscan graves than Greek graves. During the Early Classical period, Greek elites usually created elaborate grave markers—which would be seen by everyone passing through a cemetery—but left the tombs of the deceased relatively bare. [11] By contrast, elite Etruscans decorated the interior of their large chamber tombs with extravagant paintings. Many of these paintings depict drinking parties. For example, the back wall of the Tomb of the Leopards in Tarquinia shows three couples reclining on couches, being served by nude boys. Each of these couples is comprised of a man and a woman (rather than the two men we find in the Tomb of the Diver), and the plants growing beneath their couches indicate the banquet is taking place outside, but the overall theme is the same. At least some of the inspiration to paint the Tomb of the Diver with a lively symposion may have come from these Etruscan tombs.
The artist who painted the Tomb of the Diver took inspiration from both Greek and Etruscan artistic traditions, perhaps even incorporating some local Italian elements like the unusual vase on the east wall. Although we don’t know whether the person buried in the Tomb of the Diver identified as Greek, Etruscan, or Italian, we can imagine that he would be pleased to be surrounded by a relaxed scene of communal drinking for eternity.
Cover, Tomb of the Diver, c. 470 B.C.E., true fresco on travertine, 111 x 210 cm (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Paestum; photo: PaestumPaestum, CC BY-SA 4.0)
Diver (detail), cover, Tomb of the Diver, c. 470 B.C.E., true fresco on travertine (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Paestum; photo: Miguel Hermosa Cuesta, CC BY-SA 4.0)
The diver on the ceiling
The decoration on the ceiling of the Tomb of the Diver is very different from the symposion on the walls. The scene is surrounded by a black painted frame that has palmettes in each of its four corners. Within the frame we see a single nude male figure diving off a stone platform into pale blue water. The artist has added details that indicate a landscape, which are entirely absent in the symposion scene. One tree grows out of the ground by the edge of the water, while another grows out of the side of the frame, almost as if the frame is a cliff. [12]
Looking more closely at the diver reveals the painter’s attention to detail. The figure is outlined in black, and his muscles are indicated with thin black lines. He looks straight towards the water he is about to enter. His scruffy beard indicates he is an adolescent on the cusp of manhood. He believably stretches out, slightly tensed, as he dives towards the water.
Diver (detail), Tomb of Hunting and Fishing, Monterozzi Necropolis, Tarquinia, Italy, c. 530–500 B.C.E., true fresco (photo: public domain)
The meaning of this scene remains somewhat unclear. Some scholars have interpreted it as a metaphor for death, in which the diver is jumping off the edge of the known world into another realm, here symbolized as the sea. [13] It might also be a scene of recreation. [14] Scenes of diving were rare in Greek painted pottery, but did occasionally appear in Etruscan tombs, as in the Tomb of Hunting and Fishing in Tarquinia. In that tomb, a nude young man dives off a rock in a lively landscape full of birds. Once again we find that the artisan who made the Tomb of the Diver may have taken inspiration from Etruscan funerary art to create this scene, which could have carried symbolic meaning for ancient viewers.
Greek, Etruscan, or Italian? The problem of identities
The Tomb of the Diver is often recognized as a rare example of ancient Greek wall painting. But is it really Greek? Was it made by someone who identified as Greek, or Etruscan, or something else? What was the identity of the person buried within? These questions are impossible to answer with our current knowledge. The evidence provided by the painted decoration in the Tomb of the Diver suggested that we can best understand it as a hybrid object that combines elements of several different artistic traditions. The style of representation is partially borrowed from Greek vase painting, as is the symposion scene itself. But the impulse to decorate the Tomb with elaborate frescoes is more in line with the Etruscan tradition, as is the intricate landscape on the ceiling. Local Italian culture may also be incorporated in certain details, like the large vase on the east wall.
Given where the Tomb of the Diver was made and found, we should not be entirely surprised by this hybridity. The Tomb was painted and buried in Italy, outside the walls of Poseidonia, a Greek colony founded by settlers from the city of Sybaris. Living in a Greek city located in southern Italy, inhabitants of Poseidonia would have regularly encountered local southern Italians and Etruscans who lived further north. Whoever made the Tomb used elements from each of these cultures to create a unique monument that fulfilled the needs of the person buried within. By defying our typically rigid classifications of ancient cultures, the Tomb of the Diver reveals the extent to which these cultures interacted with one another.
